Avoidance or attraction? Behavioural responses of a small carnivore to an apex predator in an alpine ecosystem

Resource partitioning between apex and subordinate carnivores is modulated by interspecific interactions, potentially affecting the ecology of all the species involved. Top predators may positively affect smaller species through increased carrion availability. However, for mesocarnivores, the risk of intraguild killing may outweigh the benefits of exploiting these resources, resulting in a complex trade-off between attraction and avoidance. Despite its key importance, such a network of indirect interactions is particularly understudied in areas recently recolonized by large carnivores. We investigated wolf–red fox spatiotemporal interactions using camera trapping in a protected alpine area that recently experienced wolf recolonization. We evaluated red fox temporal behaviour at the seasonal level, comparing sites with higher and lower wolf activity (higher wolf use site and lower wolf use site, respectively) and at a finer scale using a novel and recently developed approach: recurrent event analysis. Eventually, we evaluated the spatial variation of red fox detection rates in relation to wolf activity. Our results suggest a high temporal overlap between the two species in each season, with increased red fox activity in higher wolf use sites during spring. The fine-scale approach revealed a higher red fox observation rate shortly after a wolf detection. At the spatial scale, mixed models showed a positive association of wolf and fox detection rates in spring and marginally in winter. Overall, our results suggest spatiotemporal attraction rather than avoidance in alpine environments, thus emphasizing the wide behavioural plasticity of red foxes. The ultimate consequences of this mechanism on red fox fitness and population dynamics need to be further evaluated in the long term.