LiDAR applications in archaeology: a systematic review

In the last two decades, the analysis of data derived from LiDAR (light detection and ranging) technology has dramatically changed the investigation and documentation of past cultural landscapes, sometimes revealing monumental architectures and settlement systems totally unknown before. Despite the exponential uptick of case studies, an extensive review of LiDAR applications in archaeology is so far missing. Here, we present a systematic survey of works published in international journals in 2001–2022, with the aim of providing an annotated bibliography on the theme and collect quantitative information about each case study. Data collected allowed to analyse the geographic distribution of LiDAR-based studies, the specifics of acquisitions, the topography and vegetation cover of each study area, the characteristics of the material culture detected, major goals and integrated techniques. The survey considers 291 studies, of which 167 located in Europe, 104 in the Americas and only 20 between Asia, Middle East, Oceania and Africa. Our analysis shows that the impact of LiDAR in archaeological studies was greater in some areas of Europe and North America, where scholars could rely on the availability of open data provided by the institutions. This is testified by the higher number of both case studies and large-scale projects investigating these regions. It also emerges that LiDAR potential largely depends on the characteristics of the material culture, the vegetation cover and data resolution. These factors underlie the outstanding results achieved through LiDAR in tropical rainforests compared to those obtained in temperate areas, such as the Mediterranean, where the outcropping archaeological evidence, albeit vast and widespread, is generally less preserved and obscured by the dense vegetation of the Mediterranean maquis. We conclude that the increasing availability of LiDAR data over vast areas could lead to enormous advances in the investigation, monitoring and protection of the cultural heritage.